 貧匯匈 
卦指 
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Social interactions are done most frequently through conversations. Are there any regularities in conversations? Pragmatists have shown that the answer is positive. Since the early 1970s discourse analysts have observed various types of conversation --- classroom discourses, doctor-patient talks, lawyer-client dialogues, etc. They find that despite differences in participants?and purposes, conversations are structured. This section will introduce some of their main findings, including turn-taking, back-channel signals, adjacency pairs, insertion sequences, pre-sequences, and preferred second parts. Turn-taking refers to having the right to speak by turns. Having control of the floor at any time in a conversation is called a turn. Conversations normally follow the basic pattern of ＾I speak---you speak---I speak---you speak￣, if there are two participants. Any possible change-of-turn point is called a transition relevance place (TRP). TRP is closely linked with social norms. It is important in any culture for an individual to know when to speak and when to remain silent. To use a foreign language appropriately requires such knowledge. Normal conversations consist of smooth transitions from one speaker to the next. Transitions with long pause between turns or with overlap (i.e. both speakers speak at the same time) are felt to be awkward. Sometimes, one speaker holds the floor for quite a while and he/she expects the partner to listen during his/her extended turn. In this case, the partner may indicate that he/she is listening. There are two types of indication: paralinguistic signals, such as nodding, gestures, smiles, and other facial expressions; vocal signals, uh-uh, yeah, mmm and so on . These vocal indications are called back-channel signals. In telephone conversations, they are more necessary. Adjacency pairs are a fundamental unit of conversational structure. They are sequences of two utterances as the result of turn-taking. The two utterances are ordered as a first part and second part. A particular first part requires a particular second part, e.g. offers requiring acceptance or rejections, greetings requiring greetings, questions requiring answers, etc. However, not all first parts are immediately followed by second parts. It often occurs that the answer is delayed by another pair of question and answer. The sequence will then become Q1-Q2-A2-A1. The middle pair (Q2-A2-) is called an insertion sequence. This pattern can be exemplified by (43). (43) A: Can I go out now, daddy? As shown by (43), an insertion sequence is one adjacency pair within another. Within an insertion sequence, there may be another. The whole sequence will take the form of Q1-Q2-Q3-Q4-A4-A3-A2-A1. (44) A: Are you going tonight? (Q1) Adjacency pairs represent social interactions. A first part creates a certain expectation. Prototypically, a first part that contains an offer or invitation is uttered in the expectation that the second part will be an acceptance rather than a refusal. This kind of inclination divides second parts into preferred and dis-preferred. Dis-preferred second parts are marked by more time and more language. In response to offers and invitations, the speaker may use a kind of token acceptance to show appreciation, as shown by (45). (45) A: Come and join us, will you? Dis-preferred second parts are generally avoided as they do harm to the face of the speaker. One way to avoid contexts for dis-preferred second parts is to use pre-sequences. Realizing that face is at risk if a dis-preferred second part has to be made, the speaker may use pre-invitation before performing the act of invitation. (46) A: What are you going to do this Friday evening? Similarly, speakers often produce a pre-request before requesting. (47) A: Are you busy now? Pre-announcements are used by speakers to check the hearer's attention or to gain an extended turn in the conversation. (48) is an example from Yule (2000: 68): (48) Child: Mom, guess what happened? In this conversation the child uses pre-announcement to check if his mother is willing to pay attention. As pre-announcement has the function of calling attention, what follows it is usually something surprising or amusing. This is often made use of in comic talks or talk shows. (48) A: Do you know what I want to tell you about Mr Rowan? |