10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice

　 Language teachers are directly faced with the problem of how to teach. Yet there is no definite answer, although language teaching has a history of twenty-five centuries (Kelly 1969). Over the last hundred years a number of methods have emerged, namely the grammar-translation method, the direct method, the reading method, the audiolingual method, the audiovisional method, total physical response, the silent way, the communicative approach and so on. Each of these was believed to be an effective way, but none has been adopted universally. Even if the same method is adopted by two teachers in the same school, the observed activities may be quite different. How is this possible?

　 The language teacher must respond to a number of variables, which are classified by Brumfit (1980) as follows:

　　1. At the most general level the situation will be constrained by national variables:
　　　(1) national educational aims in general
　　　(2) national educational aims for language teaching
　　　(3) the nature of the social situation which causes particular language to be taught

　　2. These general factors will significantly affect local situation variables:
　　　(1) through official policy decisions, or lack of decision
　　　　　a) size of class
　　　　　b) degree of compulsion
　　　　　c) quantity and intensity of instruction allowed
　　　　　d) amount of administrative support offered to the teacher
　　　　　e) physical resources available
　　　(2) through the unofficial climate of opinion in relation to
　　　　　a) control, class relationships and discipline
　　　　　b) degree of interference tolerated
　　　　　c) freedom of maneuver allowed to the teacher (the extent to which textbooks and official syllabus can be criticized and changed, etc.)

　　3.Pupil variables, including:
　　　a) aptitude for language
　　　b) attitudinal factors
　　　c) motivation
　　　d) age
　　　e) nature of previous experience of learning, and of language learning

　　4.Teacher variables, including:
　　　a) aptitude
　　　b) attitude
　　　c) motivation
　　　d) age
　　　e) previous experience
　　　f) training

　 All of these will influence the selection within the range of options available to the teacher in as principled a way as possible. This shows that methods are not fads and fashions. All methods are the integration of principles and practice.

　 Constituent analysis of methods shows that a method is more than a single strategy or a specific technique.

　 It is a ‘theory’ of language teaching which has resulted from practical and theoretical discussions in a given historical context. It usually implies and sometimes overtly expresses certain objectives, and a particular view of language; it makes assumptions about the language learner; and underlying it are certain beliefs about the nature of the language learning process. It also expresses a view of language teaching by emphasizing certain aspects of teaching as crucial to successful learning. (Stern 1997:　453)

　 Richards and Rogers (1986) holds a similar view of methods. They conceptualize method as composed of approach, design, and procedure. The elements in each of these are summarized in in the following figure:

A simplified model of method as integration of theory and practice
(Source: Richards and Rogers 1986: 28)

　 The above analyses show that a method is not a set of specific techniques that are effective in all situations. A method is not a panacea. It is a coherent integration of theory and practice. This concept of teaching methods led to the advocacy of eclecticism in the 1980s. It is advocated that language teachers select from different methods. Yet, selection is after all a rational behavior. It presupposes that the teacher understands the theoretical underpinnings of various methods, a point we turn to in the following section.