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A
Brief History of London
London is in
fact two cities—"The City of London" usually just called "The
City", and "Westminster", which lies to its west. For
all intents and purposes the West End (everything to the immediate
West of the City) is now the centre of London—the East End
(home of Cockney culture) is traditionally a poor working
class and industrial area, currently undergoing something
of a renaissance. There are slums within half a mile of the
biggest concentration of financial power in the world—largely
due to an invisible barrier between the City and the East
End.
Londinium was founded by the Romans at a convenient
crossing of the Thames, though it had been convenient for
the local inhabitants too. Tacitus describes a flourishing
trading city existing in AD 67. The area was marshy but there
was a low hill, roughly where the Bank of England now stands
and it was here that the Romans chose to build a typical Roman
city, primarily for military reasons. Their forum was where
Leadenhall market now stands.
They believed that Britain was a kind of El
Dorado, and that they'd make their fortune here, as previous
legions had grown rich off the Amber that Germans didn't seem
to value. The river was navigable a long way inland, and tidal,
which made it easy to get boats in and out.
There's a great amount of Roman archeology
about—the Museum of London leads digs whenever any building
is erected, and as that's often, we know a great deal about
the Roman period.
England at that time was inhabited by a hodge-podge
of tribes and small kingdoms, and the Romans had little difficulty
subduing them—despite some noble efforts at defence. The
locals assimilated Roman culture, and after a couple of hundred
years were more Roman than the Romans. When the Romans pulled
out, pressured by frontier wars, the Saxons took over. They
hated living in the old walled Roman city and established
their own city of long huts, roughly where Covent Garden is
today. This duality still persists—the "City" is essentially
Roman Londinium, and "Westminster" is the Saxon add-on. When
new invaders swept the country the Saxons and their kin moved
back into the safety of the old Roman City, now quite deserted,
and it was here that London originated.
By the time the Normans took over from the
Saxons, the basis of the mercantile capital was already laid:
a charter of citizens rights and a confederation of tradesmen,
providing a counterweight to the aristocracy. London was a
leading trading port of western Europe—merchants from Italy,
the Netherlands, France and Germany lived around the river—which had only one crossing—the Old London Bridge, until
1769. Food and wine came in, wool and leather went out. Due
to the wool trade's centre in East Anglia—near the old Boston—London was for a time England's second city. However the
establishment of merchant's guilds with the mayor at their
head re-established London's place as capital. They grew up
as "misteries" or trades during the medieval period, (the "Mystery
Plays", still performed, are religious plays which
were enacted by guildsmen).
These medieval guilds and livery companies
exist today, and preserve fine buildings across the City—the Weavers' company dates back to 1130, the saddlers' company
goes back to 1272, Wax Chandlers' Company to 1358, though
the Launderers' guild was formed as late as 1960. Napleon's
jibe that Britain was a nation of shopkeepers is true: with
a living to protect from invaders, and trading routes and
privileges to protect overseas, it was unsurprising that they
made doughty fighters, as the French leaned to their cost
at Crecy and Agincourt.
In Tudor times—after years wasted in wars
of succession (which explains Henry VIII's desperate and bloody
attempts to secure a male heir) the dissolution of the monasteries,
and terrible religious persecution (the country went from
catholic to protestant, back to catholic and Henry VIII's
need for a divorce saw the final breach with Rome) led to
poverty and mass unemployment. The black death and other plagues
decimated the population.
However by the late 16th century, the seeds
of England's future as a world trading power were sown with
the formation of the Trading Companies—The East India Company,
The Muscovy Company the Levant Company, and the Turkey Company,
which along with Britain's naval prowess, saw management techniques
still venerated by world corporations, conquer the world.
England was also at the forefront of the arts with a lively
theatre and music scene (the latter eclipsed by one European
nation after another, its pre-eminence was not regained until
after the first world war).
The Plague in 1665 and the fire in 1666 shook
London out of its complacency (there are spectacular accounts
of both these in Defoe and Pepys' journals) but also lead
to a wave of property development (which is still going on),
that saw the forerunners of Sir Richard Rogers (Wren, Hawksmoor
and a whole crew of architectural geniuses) dominating the
city skylines.
This redevelopment went on into the 18th Century,
seeing buildings like The Bank of England and most of the
Bridges across the Thames springing up. Tower Bridge (often
mistaken for London Bridge, most notably by an American
Millionaire,
who transplanted the old London Bridge to Arizona, only finding
out on delivery he hadn't bought Tower Bridge) was opened
in 1894. The Victorians supervised the transformation of London
into a modern city, sewers and underground railways (1863)
tunneled beneath the clay of the world's capital, while overground
railways (1836) and omnibuses (1855) opened up across the
city, and the port of London enjoyed a final flowering.
Despite the presence of the Royal Palaces,
Westminster Abbey (a place of pilgrimage) and the country's
first printing presses, Westminster really only came into
its own in the 19th century, and was granted the title of
a City, with its own mayor in 1900. Until the 1850s it was
the haunt of criminals who used the sanctuary laws to hide
in the precincts of Westminster Abbey—there are still roads
such as "Little Sanctuary" and "Thieving Lane" which testify
to its past. The redesigning of the area under Barry put paid
to this unsavoury aspect and saw an expansion which coincided
with the arrival of the railways, Victoria Station occupying
the site of several private railway stations which were amalgamated
in 1899.
The West End was to Shaw's London what Southwark
was to Shakespeare's—the pleasure district, with hotels,
theatres, restaurants and shops, while the City remained the
financial heart of Europe, and the banking and share trading
capital of the world. Prostitution and Crime were the twin
blights of this area right up until the end of the war.
The two World Wars saw huge destruction, to
both the populace and the city and some terrible rebuilding
followed, with little real conservation work—many of the
city's worst buildings date from this time, when the Greater
London Council changed the face of the old city forever. It's
said that the GLC did more damage to London than the Luftwaffe.
London's architectural revival started with
the completion of the Lloyd's building by Sir Richard Rogers
in 1979—and despite some terrible blunders (the most of
them under Margaret Thatcher—the destruction of Battersea
Power Station being the most obvious) and some corporate vandalism
mostly committed in the City, by developers too close to the
Corporation (Sir Peter Palumbo's destruction of the old Mappin
and Webb building to erect one of London's most hideous monstrosities
above Bank station, the destruction of Spitalfields market)
London is beginning to rival Paris in its Grand Projects.
However, whether much of the old London will remain as developers
pry on the greed of local and city councils remains in question.
Greetings and Introductions
in Britain
1. Honorifics for Men,
Women, and Children
Mr/Mrs/Miss
is preferred for the overwhelmingly (95 percent by some estimates)
middle-class Briton today; the term Ms is very so slowly
gathering common usage
(please note that in written form, "Mr," "Mrs,"and "Ms" do not have periods –
"full stops" in British English
– after them: they are words in and of themselves and not
abbreviations). If someone holds a degree or title (e.g., Ph.D.,
Doctor, Lord, or Lady), it should be used while addressing
him or her, even though the holder of such a title never uses
it when referring to him or herself (however, such titles
and degrees may be written on stationery and business cards).
Please note: surgeons are referred to as "Mr," not "Doctor."
Occasionally, titled aristocracy might present a card with
a line hand-drawn across their title: it is an indication
that you may refer to them without their title in casual conversation.
Nobility use their title plus first name, not family
name, when being addressed (the correct form for addressing
peerage is complex, and can be researched in books specifically
addressing this issue). Children in Britain are another matter:
they have been traditionally viewed as incomplete adults;
as such, the British childhood is often suffered, and children
are endured. If introduced to a child, use whatever name or
honorific used by the adult. Children in Britain, in turn,
are expected to be respectful and not overly conversational
when speaking with adults, and must always use honorifics
when referring to adults. Pets, however (especially dogs),
are still another matter: they are adored, perhaps because
there is no risk of heir talking back, and referred to endearingly
with the most amazing names (by the way, in England, black
cats are considered lucky).
2.The
What, When, and How of Introducing People
Always
wait to be introduced to strangers before taking that responsibility
upon yourself. Depending upon your familiarity with the situation
or others, it may not be appropriate to introduce yourself.
Britons are most comfortable with a third-party introduction
whenever possible. Try to ensure that for yourself ahead of
time. Do not presume to seat yourself at a gathering: if possible,
wait to be told where to sit. With whom, when, and how you
are introduced is a key to understanding how you are perceived
and how the British are going to "fit you in" within their
world. Pay close attention. This is especially important if
you believe you will be interacting with individuals from
a different strata or class. Shake hands with everyone individually
in a group before departing: the American group wave is not
appreciated. Avoid ending the conversation with the American
expression "Have a nice day": it sounds controlling and insincere
to the English.
3. Physical Greeting Styles
The handshake
is common, but perhaps not as "gripping and pumping" as the
American version (the spoken introduction is the cue to let
go). Introductions such as "Pleased to meet you "and "How
do you do" are most common; any introductory phrase that is
posed in question format (e.g., "How do you do?") does not
require an answer: merely repeat the phrase back. Smiling
and other nonverbal forms of communication need not accompany
the handshake. A man should wait until the woman extends her
hand before reaching for it, and a woman may take the lead
in extending her hand or not. A man must remove his gloves
when shaking hands with a woman, but a woman need not remove
her gloves when shaking hands with a man. Bows and curtsies
are quite old-fashioned and not common, except in formal occasions,
usually with royalty. It is a nontouching culture, which means
that men do not slap each other on the back or hug when greeting;
women who know each other may kiss each other on the cheek
once, but rarely will men and women do so, unless they know
each other particularly well. When being introduced, make
immediate eye contact, then quickly look away: eye contact
is minimal during conversation in Britain, unless a very specific
point with a specific speaker is being made – in that case,
eye contact is usually very direct.
Communication Styles
1. Okay Topics/Not
Okay Topics
Okay:
the weather, animals and pets, anything that is a universal
pain in the neck (griping is an apparent pastime), the economy.
Not okay: politics (especially "the royals," the "Irish,"
and the associated "Troubles"), religion, sex, and British
food. In addition, avoid references to the British "setting
sun" (the end of the empire). Do not inquire about a person's
occupation in casual conversation. Americans often begin a
conversation with "So, what do you do?"; this is too personal
in England, and assumes that one "does" something in the first
place. Do not volunteer your own personal family history,
or ask about others.
2.
Tone, Volume, and Speed
In most
formal situations (excluding the home and family-style restaurants),
understatement is the driver: therefore, the volume is almost
always turned down, almost to mumbling; the tone is respectful
and humbling but the speed can very, depending upon the situation
(class).
3.
Use of Silence
The need
to avoid confrontation is so strong at times that silence
or withdrawal may occasionally be employed to avoid a direct
battle. Do not confuse avoidance of confrontation with lack
of directness: if no confrontation is anticipated, Britons
are usually remarkably direct (especially in business).
4.
Physical Gestures and Facial Expressions
The basic
rule is to minimize physicality: it is seen as childlike and
representative of ill-breeding. Touching one's nose indicates
"keep this a secret" or "this is between us"; in addition,
the "V for Victory" sign must be done with palm facing outward.
In most English-speaking countries (with the exception of
the United States), making this sign with the palm inward
is a vulgar gesture of defiance. Upon first meeting, facial
expressions are kept to minimum; therefore, feelings may be
hard to read from the face.
5.
Counting
The index
finger is one; the thumb is five. Pointing is usually done
with the head or chin, and not with the fingers: it is considered
unseemly.
Protocol in Public
1. Walking Styles and
Waiting in Lines
Queuing
is a national pastime: never break a queue, and if there is
a queue, go to the back of it and wait, no matter how long
it takes. Queues develop at all public facilities, and then
some. People walk on the left in public, drive on the left,
and pass on the right: this is true on escalators and moving
walkways, as well as roads and streets. Remember also that
you usually have the right of way as a pedestrian only in
a "zebra" walkway (the stripes painted at a crosswalk): cars
must stop as soon as you step into the zebra (pronounced with
the "e" as in "egg"); nevertheless, be careful!
2.
Behavior in the Market
Store
hours are typically not built around customer convenience
(may stores are closed on weekends and most evenings – except
Thursdays, usually), and getting served in a store or restaurant
can be an exercise in patience: it's one person at time, thank
you, and you are often not acknowledged as waiting until the
sales again is ready for you. Typically, the customers are
invisible to the salesclerk until eye contact is made, and
it can be maddeningly difficult for customers to get the clerks
attention at times. In food market, if you touch the produce,
you buy it; in goods stores, it may be difficult for you to
return a product unless there is a flaw in it. Smoking in
public places is on the decline.
3.
Bus/Metro/Taxi/Car
Never
break a queue for a bus, train, or taxi; on public transportation,
it is polite to surrender your seat to the elderly, parents
with babies, or the handicapped, but men need not do so for
women of the approximate same age. Enter a taxi in the back
on the opposite side of the drive; when leaving eh taxi, go
round to the driver's window first before paying the fare.
Dining and Drinking
1. Mealtimes and Typical
Foods
Breakfast
is typically a large, important meal, and can be held anytime,
usually from 7 to 9 A.M. An authentic English breakfast consists
of white toast, juice, cereal, bacon, sausages, fried potatoes,
and tomatoes, and so on. Drinks can be tea or coffee (tea
is taken usually with milk or cream, although the aristocratic
tradition in England emphasizes tea with lemon and no cream).
Lunch is serve form noon to 1 or 2 P.M., and usually
consists of sandwiches, salads, pub specials, and the like.
Drinks are beer or sodas. On Sunday, the main meal of he day
is supper, which is usually served beginning at lunchtime,
but includes real dinner dishes, and mainly always a roast.
Formal dinner is served from 7:30 to 8:30 P.M. the
customary time. It usually begins with an alcoholic drink
(sherry, gin, or a whiskey), plus nuts and such. The appetizer
is usually soup or prawns, followed by fish or met and vegetables.
Dessert includes sweet puddings (as opposed to savory, non-dessert
puddings) and trifles, and can also include cheese and crackers,
Wine is usually served with dinner, and the English have a
real love for dessert wines: especially ports and liqueurs.
Dinner parties usually end at around 11:30 P.M. to midnight.
Tea is a special tradition in England. There are two
different forms: "tea" and "high tea." High tea is really
a substitute for dinner, and is taken around 5 P.M.: it consists
of a hot dish (a savory pie, for example) plus all the other
ingredients of regular tea. Regular tea usually consists of
savory finger sandwiches, then cakes and sweets, all washed
down with many cups of tea. Making a proper pot of tea is
an important skill. After "putting the kettle on", one pours
the scalding water into the teapot, and lets the tea steep
for about five minutes. Be sure that the teapot is very near
the teakettle when you are ready to pour in the hot water:
walking too far form the stove with a hot kettle is not good
for the tea. Additional hot water may be added to the teapot
as needed until the tea has given all it can.
2.
Typical Drinks and Toasting
Before
dinner, instead of mixed drinks popular in the United States,
a short whisky, some dry sherry, a gin and tonic are very
common in Britain. Red and white wines during the meal are
preferred, and port oar a sweet sherry at the end of the meal
is perfect. Less formal meals, especially at lunch, are washed
down with English beer, of which there are dozens of fine
examples. English beer is not warm; it is merely served at
room temperature. If you want a chilled beer, ask for a lager.
Common English beers come usually in the following varieties,
from the strongest on down: ales, stout, bitter, and lager.
Beer usually comes in pints (almost two full glasses) or half-pints.
The alcohol content of most English beers can be higher than
American beers, so measure yourself accordingly.
The most common toast is cheers, or to your health.
Sometimes there is a toast at the end of a very formal meal
to the queen, the king, or the royal family; otherwise, with
all other toasts, one typically does not toast anyo9neolder
or more senior than oneself.
There is a tradition in may Commonwealth countries
to order rounds (or "shouts") of drinks for friends: it is
a taking of turns in the buying of drinks for all in the group.
Tea is usually served separately at tea and for breakfast;
after lunch and dinner, coffee is the usual drink.
3. Table Manners and the
Use of Utensils
The English
do not switch knives and forks. When both are used, the knife
remains in the right hand, and the fork remains in the left.
When the meal is finished, the knife and fork are laid parallel
to each other across the right side of the plate. If you put
both utensils down on the plate for any real amount of time,
it is a sign to the waitstaff that you are finished, and your
plate may be taken away from you. In addition, the fork is
often held tines down, so that food is scooped up onto the
backside of the fork; do this after much practice, or with
foods that can stick to the back of the fork. There are often
many additional pieces of cutlery, and the cutlery is often
substantial. The knife above the plate is use for butter;
otherwise, if you're unsure of which utensil to use, always
start from the outside and work your way in, course by course.
Hands are expected, when not holding utensils, to be in one's
lap at the dinner table. At the table, pass all dishes to
your left.
4. Seating Plans
The most
honored position is at the head of the table, with individuals
of greatest importance seated first to the left and then the
right of the head of the table; if there is a hosting couple,
one will be at one end of the table, the other at the opposite
end. As on the Continent, men and women are seated next to
each other, and couples are often broken up and seated next
to people they may not have previously known. This is done
in the interest of conversation. Men typically rise when women
enter the room, and continue to hold doors for women and allow
them to enter a room first.
Being a Good Guest or
Host
1. Paying the Bill
Usually
the one who issues the invitation pays the bill, although
the guest is expected to make an effort to pay. Sometimes
other circumstances determine the payer (such as rank). Making
payment arrangements ahead of time so that no exchange occurs
at eh table is a very classy way to host.
2.
When to Arrive/Chores to Do
If invited
to a private home, offer to help with the chores if there
is no waitstaff present; however, your offer will probably
be rejected, and you should not expect to visit the kitchen.
If you are at a dinner party in a private home, do no move
form room to room unless and until the host offers to show
you around. Spouses are often included in business dinners,
and you are more likely to be invited to a dinner party at
home in England than you would be in any other European country.
SOURCES:
Foster, Dean. 2000. The Global Etiquette Guide to Europe.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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